[ii] George Kirk, "The Middle East in the War," in "Survey of International Affairs, 1939-1946," v. 2. The freshman Democrat from Michigan’s 13th district was born in Detroit to parents from the West Bank, making her the first Palestinian-American woman to serve in Congress. Members of Parliament were slower in accepting the inevitable, and even managed to trap the Government into acknowledging that it was impossible to do what Mr. Attlee had just done twice--to define the Middle East. Psychological overtones appear also in the recent definition of the unifying principle of the Middle East--a principle so elastic as to apply potentially to half the globe--by a prominent sociologist: "The people of the area are today unified not by their common solutions but by their common problems: how to modernize traditional lifeways that no longer 'work' to their own satisfaction." . Over time, it has … Though this imprecision satisfied Mr. Attlee, Mr. Keeling, another member, continued by asking, "If Egypt is to be called the 'Middle East,' where is the 'Near East' now?" Furthermore, it may be argued, as in a recent incisive study of American policy in this area, that "the important thing is what we do about the Middle East, not how we define it."[xvii]. "Brigadier Low: Since the hon. They are west of China, and are not "oriental" at all, but Semetic(Arabia, Iraq) or IndoEuropean (Iran) in language. Download the Report The Middle East has long been one of the most unstable regions in the world, and there are no present prospects for change in the near future. Blitz and blackout had curtailed but not arrested its program. In the same year in which Hogarth put the stamp of geographical approval on the new Near East, Middle East was also born. The major contemporary historian of the area during the war finds a "geopolitical unity" based on Islam, on traditional European imperialist interests and on the annihilation by plane and motorcar of the Syrian desert barrier between "Near" and "Middle" East. [xv] The New York Times Index, 1956, p. 751. Students will be able to: 1. The "Atlas of Islamic History" showed the modern Near East as extending from Egypt's western border to Iran's eastern border, and the Middle East from Afghanistan's western border to Burma's eastern border. "The Nearer East," said Hogarth somewhat ruefully, "is a term of current fashion for a region which our grandfathers were content to call simply the East." Mr. Dulles felt that drawing a defense perimeter might be an invitation to the Soviet Union to take anything outside that line. Unhampered by tradition, the new international organization assumed that the Near East was dead and that the problem was simply to delimit Middle East. He was willing to see Iraq drop out of the Middle East. [viii] "Thoughtful persons," said Martin, adhered to his definition of Near East. "To them," he wrote in his first article, "Tehran is merely one link in a long chain which stretches from Constantinople to Peking, and the pressure they apply in Persia is perhaps not infrequently meant to be felt as much in the Far East or in the Near East as in what Captain Mahan has aptly christened the Middle East." Turkey is also home to beautiful tourist destinations such as Istan… The Near East College Association, Near East Relief and the Near East Foundation pursued their work in former Ottoman lands of Asia with no change of name. But fundamentally the power and parochial outlook of the western nations are responsible. Desirable as such arbitrary agreement might be, it seems unlikely of achievement, for logical objections would demand the inclusion of Afghanistan with Iran, the Sudan with Egypt, Greek Thrace with Turkish Thrace, and so ad infinitum. Geographically, the Middle East can be thought of as Western Asia with the addition of Egypt (which is the non-Maghreb region of Northern Africa) and with the exclusion of the Caucasus.The Middle East was the first to experience a Neolithic Revolution (c. the 10th millennium BCE), as well as the first to enter the Bronze … Interestingly, both sides indulge in those practices to the extent they can persuade or control the media. American interests in the region are threatened by a host of adversaries from a resurgent Russia, a hegemonic Iranian desire and campaign of subversion, and Jihadi threat that has morphed from Al Qaeda to the Islamic State. Later on in his testimony Secretary Dulles recognized this, when he indicated that he was willing to list by name those countries to which the Eisenhower Doctrine would apply. endstream endobj 55 0 obj <>stream Understand and analyze the geographic history of th… After the war was won and Attlee had replaced Churchill as Prime Minister, members of the House of Commons resurrected the earlier line of questioning. It stretched along the southern border of the Soviet bloc from the Albanian to the Chinese frontier. [xviii] But of course by some definitions Bulgaria is in the Middle East, and Morse went on to point out that this sort of problem was implicit if an amorphous and non-technical regional term were officially used. It looks as if the search for a single criterion of unity, or even a set of criteria, is bound to fail when applied to so heterogeneous an area. Subscribe for articles, app access, audio, our subscriber-only newsletter, and more. The American Friends of the Middle East have recognized that the Middle East may be "more a psychological than a geographical area." Sometimes he lapsed into earlier usage and referred to the Arab area as Near East.[iv]. [xviii] Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations . Persia and Iraq were the Middle East; India, Burma and Malaya the East; and China and Japan the Far East. American officials from the President on down had succumbed to the British wartime usage of Middle East. And so the term Middle East saw the light of day just over a half-century ago. It was with Rome that the concept of an East-West division began. In this fashion the Middle East burst onto the Mediterranean coast. For the first year of war the 1939 version of Middle East meant little to the public. This was the Near East. For as the term Middle East has developed in history to its present condition, the unifying principle has always been the political and strategic interest of outside powers, especially of Britain. Defining the Term “Middle East” Culturally-speaking, it is difficult to limit the Middle East to a geographic area with hard borders. By 1896 the term Near East had become current. Actually the confusion in nomenclature originated in the Great Power politics of the first part of this century. [vi] Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, v. 373, columns 308-309. The term Near East was coined in the 19th century when Westerners divided the “Orient” into three parts: the Near East, the Middle East, and the Far East. Intentional vagueness sometimes has advantage as a tent-like cover for unformulated possibilities of future action or inaction. Presently General Wavell was sent to Cairo as Commander-in-Chief, Middle East. There is not even an accepted core for the Middle East. Documents would lose their continuity. The first is to confuse the Arab world with the Middle East. But such agreement on either vagueness or multiplicity is unlikely to clear up the confusion. A second possibility is to admit frankly that there is no particular Middle East, but that there are as many Middle Easts as there are problems touching this fuzzy region in any way. Iran was added in 1942; Eritrea was dropped in September 1941 and welcomed back again five months later. Americans generally adhered to the Near East of Hogarth, the Middle East of Chirol. Mahan had made his reputation with the publication in 1890 of "The Influence of Sea Power upon History." [xiv] Harry W. Hazard, ed., 3rd ed., Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954, p. 34, 35, 41. Civilizations outside of what is commonly referred to as the “Middle East” made intellectual, cultural and biological imprints in today’s Middle East that are indelible, especially in regard to the waves … [xvi] G. Etzel Pearcy, "The Middle East--An Indefinable Region," Department of State Bulletin, March 23, 1959, p. 407-416; reprinted as Department of State Publication No. Western Europeans began grudgingly to use the term Middle East, grumbling that it was an Anglo-Saxon invention. Mr. Attlee remained firm, though he now provided a different definition for his Middle East--"at least the area of Egypt, Palestine, Cyrenaica, Syria and Lebanon, Transjordan, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula as well as, in most cases, Persia and Turkey. On May 19, 1947, "Brigadier Low asked the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs which countries are included in the term 'Middle East' and which in the term 'Near East.'. Western Europeans began grudgingly to use the term Middle East, grumbling that it was an Anglo-Saxon invention. With this understanding, the resolution passed both houses. H‰ŒT=œ0íý+¦d‹5ËÇnéšH)"!¥ˆRøÀÀH`ˆmîöþfÒ'%^lƒYÝ%óf†™ç7c(ÍC!?Bš&q’)T|(R²¯r€÷e™˜Ì²¯•‡yw. In the last analysis, then, a term of convenience like Middle East may on occasion become a term of great inconvenience. Find the Middle East and North Africa on a map of the world, and know the location of the countries and capitals within the Middle East and North Africa. The British army followed suit in 1939 by consolidating the separate commands of Egypt, the Sudan and Palestine-Transjordan, and by adding Cyprus, Iraq, Aden, British Somaliland and the Persian Gulf. Meanwhile the United Nations had become involved in the semantic struggle, but on a different plane. One segment had been chopped off for the Far East, another for the Near East. But in the early nineteenth century most Europeans agreed with Kinglake who, reporting on his travels of 1834, found that the East began at Belgrade, where he crossed from Hapsburg into Ottoman domains. Can the State Department, the White House, and Washington generally be induced to take the pledge? By June of 1944 the president of the Royal Geographical Society, Sir George Clerk, also was urging its members to stick to the Loraine-Martin prescription. "Mr. Mayhew [Under-Secretary]: There appears to be no agreed definition of these vague geographical terms. The whole East, like all Gaul, was divided into three parts. ©2021 Council on Foreign Relations, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The strategic importance of this crossroads between continents and its relationship to the world conflict were again emphasized by the clash of arms in an area where man first raised sword to man. But it was in vain. London: Oxford, 1952, p. v. [iii] Guy Hunter, "Economic Problems: The Middle East Supply Centre," ibid., p. 169. The Government's reply was delivered by Clement Attlee, Lord Privy Seal, in the following colloquy: "Mr. Attlee: This was considered: but the title of Commander-in-Chief, Middle East, is now so well established that any change now might lead to confusion. . Freeing the Right From Free-Market Orthodoxy, How America’s Political Decay Accelerated During the Trump Era, How to Keep U.S.-Chinese Confrontation From Ending in Calamity, A New Oligarchy Can Be Restrained Only by the Government That Made It, Get in-depth analysis delivered right to your inbox, From the The Royal Geographical Society showed less restraint. The practice seems to me convenient and I see no reason to change it." Gentleman and his right hon. What might be simply a comedy of semantic confusion is rendered more serious because popular use of the neologism Middle East has obliged scholars and specialists to employ it also, to their disadvantage. In fact Churchill, despite his earlier complicity in moving the Middle East westward, seems to have had qualms all along. [ii] The historian of the Supply Center finds "geographical unity" in an area which depends upon trade through the eastern Mediterranean and Red Seas. ˆ9™º;ƒ£ÉÉv­Ï+)…­°# The last parliamentary attempt to save the Near East occurred on June 30, 1952, in the following exchange between two members and Mr. Anthony Nutting, Joint Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs: "Mr. Cocks: What countries now remain in the Near East? Possibly Churchill was impelled to this unsuccessful attempt at correcting area labels by questioning in Parliament, which had begun in the previous year. But this is unlikely to satisfy other specialists. Near East, Middle East, Far East were all projections of European--particularly British--thinking. The term's origins are seeped in controversy for having originally been a European imposition of geographic perspective according to European spheres of influence. the term “Middle East.” The “Middle East” has in turn crept westward to envelop the Eastern Mediterranean and even ... populations) shows some potentially misleading overlap with some definitions of the Middle East and North Africa. People in the Middle East live as nomads. The agreement he’s discussing, however, doesn’t actually have much of anything to do with the Middle East, or peace for that matter. he term - Middle East - when examined in cultural, anthropological and cultural terms makes very little sense. This instability is the result of ongoing conflicts and tensions, and a variety of political tensions and divisions. On August 6, in the face of great difficulties in the North African fighting, Churchill proposed to reorganize the Middle East Command by dividing it. They are west of China, and are not "oriental" at all, but Semetic(Arabia, Iraq) or IndoEuropean (Iran) in language. He was willing to envision Turkey, neutral so far, as coming into the Middle East. [i] The New York Times, August 14, 1958. On May 10, 1943, members listened, evidently with approval, to the veteran diplomat Sir Percy Loraine on "Perspectives of the Near East." Probably the Yemen was inadvertently omitted from this list, and possibly the Sudan. The Government refused to be needled into logical argument by the unreconstructed Near Easterners. [i] This differed widely from the Secretary's own definiton of the year before by cutting out over two-thirds of his Middle East. LAST fall's Suez crisis restored the Middle East to proper perspective in the war offices of the world. Some equate Middle East to the Arab world--"the Arabic-speaking Near East," as an American professor in Beirut put it. German troops reinforced the Italians operating from Tripoli and Cyrenaica against Egypt; German conquest poured down through the Balkans into Greece and Crete; further German armies threatened to over-run the Russians and come down through the Caucasus; and Vichy French forces in Syria and an anti-British revolt in Iraq gave added hope to the Nazis. Inevitably the fluctuating area involved in fighting under the Middle East Command was referred to, both popularly and officially, as the Middle East. Most forthright were the cartographers. Thus suddenly to try to thrust the Near East out of Asia introduced a confusion heretofore unknown. To this Mr. Attlee replied: "It has become the accepted practice to use the term 'Middle East' to cover the Arab world and certain neighbouring countries. It may be argued in reply that vagueness has a certain advantage in foreign policy. Chirol had read his Mahan in the National Review, and had seized on Middle East as the title for his own forthcoming reports from the lands of the western and northern approaches to India. The Middle East crept into Africa noiselessly. The trouble was of course that during the war there were far more fighting persons and political persons than there were "thoughtful persons." Like the Mahan-Chirol Middle East of 40 years before, the Middle East of World War II was a strategic concept imposed from without by British interests. "The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar . endstream endobj 54 0 obj <>stream Friends use these terms is it not a fact that they must know what they mean? . Now apparently there is only a Middle East; and the title I chose for my lecture can be taken therefore as to some extent a mild protest against the process of unnecessary assimilation."[vii]. The change in usage began to evolve prior to World War II and tended to be confirmed during that war, when the term Middle East was given to the British military command in Egypt.By the mid-20th century a common definition of the Middle East encompassed the states or territories of Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, … Become a subscriber for unrestricted access. The Near East centered on Turkey, the Middle East on India, the Far East on China. Anthropologists define the Middle East as a culture area extending from Morocco and Timbuktu to Russian Turkestan and West Pakistan. Europe awoke to the fact that there were now two Eastern questions, Far and Near. The Middle East is the term for a region consisting of countries in Southwest Asia and the Northern part of Africa. All civilizations, east and west, have stuck convenient labels on distant lands, and the west has not been alone in this practice. In the United Nations, … The Balkan Wars of 1912-13 had already driven the Turks from all but a corner of their European territories. The political dynamics and violence that shape the current series of crises in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) – and daily events in Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Libya, Tunisia, Syria, and Yemen – dominate the current course of virtually every aspect of these states including much of the current … It extends over 2,000 miles from the Black Sea in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south, and about 1,000 miles from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the mountains of Iran. Subsuming any of the geographic distinctions and nuance contained in the Arabic terms Maghreb, Khaleej and Mashriq, the vague “Middle East” continues to represent so much … In 1957 a national policy, the so-called Eisenhower Doctrine, was established to provide for American military and economic aid to nations in "the general area of the Middle East," to use the language of the Congressional resolution. For Europe, the East began where the Ottoman Empire began. But it has been western, not eastern, terminology that has girdled the globe, along with the spread of western civilization and political influence. Reporters queried the State Department to find out exactly what area his proposal applied to. [viii] Geographical Review, New York, April 1944, p. 335. "Mr. Glenvil Hall: What is the extreme of silliness in questions?"[vi]. It had only an Office of Near Eastern Affairs--whose bailiwick, characteristically, coincided neither with President Eisenhower's Near East nor with Secretary Dulles' Middle East. "I had always felt," he wrote after the war, "that the name 'Middle East' for Egypt, the Levant, Syria, and Turkey was ill-chosen. On March 1, 1921, Winston Churchill gave official sanction to the Middle Eastern aggression against the Near East. The term was originally used to distinguish Not only is the term amorphous, but it seems to imply gratuitously that the Mediterranean lands have no close relationships with the United States and the West generally, but are Asian in outlook. The "Middle East" is not a term Middle Easterners gave themselves, but a British term borne of a colonial, European perspective. In the spring of 1948 the question became actual when a suggestion originally made by Dr. Charles Malik of the Lebanon, to create an Economic Commission for the Middle East, was officially sponsored by Egypt. For him the Middle East was an indeterminate area guarding a part of the sea route from Suez to Singapore. She was one of the set of radicals I warned about ahead of last … No definite bounds were ever set to the term, and the territories with which the Command was officially charged varied from time to time. Throughout his speech he mentioned the Near East frequently, but not the Middle East. Instead, the lines of longitude and latitude were formulated on the Cartesian coordinate system that was developed by western philosophers and scientists. Mr. Dulles furnished a reasonably exact definition of the Middle East: "the area lying between and including Libya on the west and Pakistan on the east and Turkey on the north and the Arabian peninsula to the south," plus the Sudan and Ethiopia. His Near East included Albania, Montenegro, southern Serbia and Bulgaria, Greece, Egypt, all the Ottoman lands of Asia with the entire Arabian peninsula, and two-thirds of Iran, up to its "waist," a stretch of sterile desert and mountain between the Caspian and the Indian Ocean. . There are two common mistakes that are often made when referring to the Middle East. To the Turks, for instance, all Western Europe was for centuries simply Frengistan, "the land of the Franks," and even today Morocco is for Arabs the "far west," al-maghreb al-aksa. endstream endobj 53 0 obj <>stream ¥TÖWÒÑ=ä&¨è¨É`SOó´ ÿcÿØ7ksËëMB@¤n5é éK†¤“LP°¼IŠ{¬käV°B${Aë­íûf°úiÅÊs´*OQ‘œæÛ$'}¶¬| ƒe£LŽÃHÂO'™!uþªš¶*õýûØ4ÌzœÊqŸ‘;ði÷8|ê|Áˆ†½à‘=îÜ{nŸ½/ýAûÓ×ýÊ;´i°ó¼¡.˜—AwÐõ_òæò¦žÉ›4ûÅDßé©Óˆ%¼Öï3êÉæö’ä2Ž rü‹„ÊÈ5aF;<>Ûi­å  ´›fij>¹µÜฐ0!lvFz@hoŠâè‘FošÌHO뱧lñRÂd§Gýã»Nsí_€1ž—–öS^Âÿ#†úٚ‡žöÎ.Gÿ‡ÂC®wXSYKW¿ÃšÒP«>/Kä6‚ÉddÏà¡ìø‹ÿuèüéàûGÞï÷ÚÃþÿüÓñxO¿|Éñ[qøøñéPÿ— ÛÅ Yet this obvious truth makes it no less important to know where the United States is prepared to do something, and presumably to let other governments know. Its Permanent Commission on Geographical Names had resolved the year before that henceforth the Near East should denote only the Balkans; the lands from the Bosphorus to the eastern frontiers of India would be named Middle East. After World War I things began to change. The Regional Implications of Myanmar’s Coup, Women This Week: Violence Against Uighur Women, The Link Between Foreign Languages and U.S. National Security, Aung San Suu Kyi’s Major Speech on Rakhine State, Creating a State Department Office for American State and Local Diplomacy, Paywall-free reading of new articles and a century of archives, Unlock access to iOS/Android apps to save editions for offline reading, Six issues a year in print, online, and audio editions. On the day when Chirol's concluding article was published, The Times, editorially, used Middle East without embarrassment to indicate India and its approaches. The neo-Middle East survived intact to the end of the war. The phrase “Middle East” was first used in 1876 as a synonym for “Mesopotamia,” which literally meant “between rivers” in Ancient Greek, specifically between the Tigris and Euphrates in modern-day Iraq. Damascus, Istanbul and Cairo. Of another British-created Middle East nothing, happily, was heard in America, and little in Britain itself. The Middle East Command was now stretched to the utmost in dealing with Ethiopia and the Somalilands and Eritrea, Libya, Greece and Crete, Iraq and Iran. Turkey is a secular state that incorporates the diversity of religion into its monuments, such as Hagia Sophia--both a Christian and Muslim basilica. This was the Royal Air Force's Middle East, composed of Egypt, the Sudan and Kenya. In the postwar years the result of all this discussion was an unquiet confusion, an agreement to disagree. The old Eastern Question, as Chirol pointed out, had been extended by recent events across all Asia. Thus matters stood when in the spring of 1939 it became apparent that Europe was reaching a new crisis. The most logical possibility for intelligent use of the term is therefore the third--an agreement on arbitrary limits. They were told by the Department that Near East and Middle East were interchangeable terms to designate an area comprising Egypt, Syria, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf sheikhdoms. So far as the American public, at least, was concerned, the quiet funeral of the Near East may be said to have occurred at the time of the Israeli invasion of Egypt. Churchill, by now Prime Minister, used Middle East accordingly, that is to say in a very loose sense. [iv] Cf. The United States Government as well has now begun to use the term officially, but in varying senses that add to the general obfuscation. úñ ëº7øÀ”þé*o1oüæW|ÜÒ[>¶’MV¾žærðQÝ1ímÕa£×z5Ÿ¸¨Q´Þ1Ší£•Û¬¸\ˆz—aM.Yìí/Èn.ƒ¿AùJøß 4Jò¸È.çÿÒèûþV:)ò8[¸Üh9„:éN€žÍ!æ¶ç}Èjè!¿nQ¡b¨ÃÌaTaU?+|æ¿j… Recently the geographer of the State Department has concluded that the Middle East cannot be defined.[xvi]. Friend the Prime Minister is of opinion that it is better to go on as we are. “Nationalism and Islam has had its day,” he says. . The Near East included the Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, while the Middle East ranged between the Persian Gulf and Southeast Asia—quite a small region compared with … Now he chopped off the Middle East as a separate unit. What is the extremity on this side from which the Middle East is equidistant? The unnamed correspondent was Valentine Chirol, already known as a writer on the East, with one book on Greeks and Turks and a second on "The Far Eastern Question." It also, however, is the result of a wide variety of long-term … The rapid advance in Asia of the Russians alarmed Chirol. But the American press was never able to cut loose from the British wartime usage of Middle East. Some have suggested that the term “Middle East” is problematic because it is, undeniably, a Western term reflecting a Western perspective. An epoch-making geography, "The Nearer East," published in 1902 by D. G. Hogarth, an English archaeologist and traveler who knew the region from the inside, helped both to fix the term and define its limits. A year later came the Lebanese crisis, the July 14 revolution in Iraq, and the dispatch of American and British troops to the Lebanon and Jordan. Yet the fact remains that no one knows where the Middle East is, although many claim to know. "[xv] The new Middle East was here to stay, but Mahan and Chirol would not have known their child. Unfortunately, when it comes to the Arab, Turkic and Persian realms, the catch-all term “Middle East” continues to hold sway among English speakers. In the context of the cold war, the Middle East has rapidly emerged as a primary center of concern for American foreign policy. Senator Morse raised the crucial question as to whether, if Bulgaria went Titoist and were attacked by the U.S.S.R., the Eisenhower Doctrine would apply to Bulgaria. Excellent summary of common tricks the media uses in obfuscating the truth about the Middle East. Involved in the terminological chaos is of course the corollary question of how the Middle East relates to the Near East--or, indeed, whether the Near East still exists at all. For it is obvious that the neologism will be with us for some time, and if Near East is no longer accepted, Middle East is the only currently available replacement. "It all depends where you are in the world," was the Prime Minister's answer.[ix]. Foreign Affairs, Published by the Council on Foreign Relations. Specialists on the area tried to sweep back the tide, on the ground of geographical reason and historical logic, but to no avail. A Muslim pilgrim prays on Mount al-Noor outside of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, November 2010. Chirol included the approaches to India, land and sea: Persia, the Gulf, Iraq, the eastern coasts of Arabia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Some apply spatial terms to a chronological sequence, making Middle East roughly the equivalent of the former Near East in area, but its successor in time, with the demise of the Ottoman Empire as the dividing line. Rashida Tlaib is a victim, and not just any victim – she’s a righteous one. Scholars and governments have produced reasoned definitions that are in hopeless disagreement. . Middle East Policy Council Teaching the Middle East: A Resource Guide for … Five years ago the government of India decided to give up Middle East as meaningless in relation to its own position. "Few probably could say offhand where should be the limits and why," he continued, but then intrepidly proceeded to set bounds. The British created also a Middle East Supply Center and the post of Minister of State in the Middle East, both based on Cairo. This was the broadest Middle East yet to be officially invented, straddling three continents. On July 25 in the House of Commons "Surgeon Lieut.-Commander Bennett asked the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs what countries are included in the term, the 'Near East,' as used in official terminology. [xvii] John C. Campbell, "Defense of the Middle East." Here Mahan considered the Anglo-Russian contest along with the new element of the projected German Berlin-to-Baghdad railway with its probable terminus on the Persian Gulf. Well, it depends on who you ask. The first to express doubts was Sir Francis Fremantle, who seized an occasion after General Wavell had been shifted from the Middle East Command in Cairo to India, and General Auchinleck brought from India to Cairo.
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